Development, Validity, and Cross-Context Equivalence of the Child Food Insecurity Experiences Scale for Assessing Food Insecurity of School-Age Children and Adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Children ages 6 to 17 years can accurately assess their own food insecurity, whereas parents are inaccurate reporters of their children's experiences of food insecurity. No globally applicable scale to assess the food insecurity of children has been developed and validated. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to develop a globally applicable, experience-based measure of child and adolescent food insecurity and establish the validity and cross-contextual equivalence of the measure. METHODS: The 10-item Child Food Insecurity Experiences Scale (CFIES) was based on items previously validated from questionnaires from the United States, Venezuela, and Lebanon. Cognitive interviews were conducted to check understanding of the items. The questionnaire then was administered in 15 surveys in 13 countries. Other items in each survey that assessed the household socioeconomic status, household food security, or child psychological functioning were selected as criterion variables to compare to the scores from the CFIES. To investigate accuracy (i.e., criterion validity), linear regression estimated the associations of the CFIES scores with the criterion variables. To investigate the cross-contextual equivalence (i.e., measurement invariance), the alignment method was used based on classical measurement theory. RESULTS: Across the 15 surveys, the mean scale scores for the CFIES ranged from 1.65 to 5.86 (possible range of 0 to 20) and the Cronbach alpha ranged from 0.88 to 0.94. The variance explained by a 1-factor model ranged from 0.92 to 0.99. Accuracy was demonstrated by expected associations with criterion variables. The percentages of equivalent thresholds and loadings across the 15 surveys were 28.0 and 5.33, respectively, for a total percentage of nonequivalent thresholds and loadings of 16.7, well below the guideline of <25%. That is, 83.3% of thresholds and loadings were equivalent across these surveys. CONCLUSIONS: The CFIES provides a globally applicable, valid, and cross-contextually equivalent measure of the experiences of food insecurity of school-aged children and adolescents, as reported by them.

Experiences and Situations of Shame among Food-insecure Adolescents in South Carolina and Oregon.

Shame experienced with food insecurity and participating in food assistance may affect adolescents. We investigated adolescents' experiences of shame related to food insecurity and situations for these experiences in an ethnically diverse sample of 40 adolescents aged 9-15 years from South Carolina and Oregon. In-depth interviews were recorded, transcribed, coded, and analyzed. Participants described feelings of sadness, anger, and internalized shame with food insecurity. Salient situations were participating in food assistance, seeking food assistance from others or community services, and social encounters at school among peers. Adolescents felt shame knowing that peers were aware of their food insecurity and about them participating in food assistance through school.

Medición de inseguridad alimentaria-nutricional, hambre y estrategias de afrontamiento de niños y adolescentes en Medellín-Colombia / Measurement of food-nutrition insecurity, hunger and coping strategies in children and adolescents in Medellin-Colombia

La inseguridad alimentaria (IA) y hambre afectan a 820 millones de personas en el mundo, 187 millones en América Latina y el Caribe, 18,5 millones en Latinoamérica con más severas crisis humanitarias y a más de la mitad de la población en Colombia. En niños y adolescentes la IA ha sido poco estudiada en Colombia, en parte por ausencia de instrumentos válidos y confiables. El objetivo de esta investigación es determinar la validez y confiabilidad de escalas que miden la IA y las estrategias de afrontamiento (EA) ante la falta de alimentos en niños y adolescentes. Estudio transversal (n=4051) realizado en Medellín-Colombia que midió la IA (10 ítemes) y EA (9 ítemes) con instrumentos desarrollados previamente. Se utilizó SPSS v21 para realizar análisis de componentes principales (ACP), validez y confiabilidad. Siete de cada 10 niños se preocupan por la falta de alimentos. El ACP de instrumento IA arrojó dos componentes: 1. cantidad, calidad y preocupación; 2. episodios de hambre, que explican 57 % de varianza. El ACP de las EA explica 43 % de varianza. Los instrumentos de IA y EA poseen una buena confiabilidad (α-Cronbach's de 0,78 y 0,82). El instrumento de IA se validó comparándolo con la talla para la edad, que arrojó una asociación inversa y significativa entre baja talla y la seguridad alimentaria. Esta investigación es la primera en evidenciar que la problemática de IA está presente en los niños y adolescentes de Medellín. Los instrumentos de IA y EA utilizados resultaron ser altamente válidos y confiables(AU)

Food insecurity (FI) and hunger affected 820 million people in the world, 187 million in Latin America and the Caribbean, 18.5 million in Latin America lived the worst severe food crises, and more than half of the Colombian population live with FI. FI in children and adolescents has been little measure, partly due to absence of valid and reliable instruments in Colombia. The aim of this study is to determine the validity and reliability of the FI and coping strategies (CS) tools in children and adolescents. Cross-sectional study (n = 4051) carried out in Medellín-Colombia. A 10-ítemes scale is used to measure FI and 9-ítemes scale capture the CS. SPSS v21 program was used to analyze data. Principal component analysis (PCA), validity and reliability were applied. Seven out of 10 children mentioned they were worry for FI. PCA showed two main components of FI: 1. Related with quantity, quality and worry about food; 2. Hunger episodes, that explain 57% of variance. PCA of the CS scale resulted in one component that explains 43% of variance. FI and CS instruments resulted in good reliability (α-Cronbach 0.78; 0.82). FI instrument was validated by comparing it with height-for-age indicator, which showed an association between stunting (low height-for-age) and food insecurity. This study is the first to show that children and adolescents living in Medellín are facing FI and CS. The FI and CS scales used were found to be highly valid and reliable(AU)

De una crisis alimentaria anunciada a la emergencia humanitaria en Venezuela / From a food crisis to a humanitarian emergency in Venezuela

La crisis alimentaria anunciada por científicos en el año 2007 se ha convertido en una emergencia humanitaria en el 2021. Se fueron gestando una economía desequilibrada, elevados precios de alimentos, falta de servicios básicos como el agua, servicios sanitarios, trayendo como consecuencia una hiperinflación de 3713%, un salario mínimo que cubre 0,88% de la canasta alimentaria, 97% de inseguridad alimentaria, 15% de desnutrición aguda y 30% de baja talla en menores de 5 años y la movilización de 4,6 millones venezolanos. Este trabajo analiza las percepciones sobre una crisis alimentaria en Venezuela, factores asociados y estrategias para mejorarla desde la mirada de profesionales de la alimentación y nutrición en el año 2007. Se seleccionó intencionalmente 51 profesionales, de los cuales 10 sujetos respondieron una entrevista confidencial y electrónica. La categorización y análisis de las entrevistas se complementó con referencias de otros autores, para la construcción de la teoría. La mayoría de los entrevistados admitió una crisis alimentaria en el 2007, con factores asociados de índole político, económico, de servicios y hasta moral. Como recomendaciones surge: "reorientar las políticas agrícolas, pecuarias, de educación, trabajo y remuneración entre otras, relacionadas directa e indirectamente con el sector de los alimentos, para lograr abastecer los mercados y permitir que los alimentos puedan llegar a la población". Esta aproximación de la crisis alimentaria permitió comprender cómo la crisis se exacerbó hasta convertirse en una emergencia humanitaria agravada por la pandemia. Se ha perdido toda una generación de venezolanos por enfermedad, muerte, oportunidades y migraciones(AU)

The food crisis announced by scientists in 2007 has become a humanitarian emergency in 2021. An unbalanced economy, high food prices, lack of basic services such as water, sanitation, were brewing, resulting in a hyperinflation of 3713%, a minimum wage that covers 0.88% of the food basket, 97% of the population with food insecurity, 15% of acute malnutrition and 30% of stunting in children under 5 y. and the migration of 4.6 million Venezuelans. This manuscript analyzes the perceptions of a food crisis in Venezuela, associated factors and strategies to improve it from the perspective of food and nutrition professionals in 2007. Fifty-one professionals were intentionally selected, of which 10 subjects answered a confidential and electronic interview. The categorization and analysis of the interviews was complemented with references from other authors, for the construction of the theory. Most of those interviewed admitted a food crisis in 2007, with associated factors of a political, economic, essential utilities and even moral nature. As recommendations arise: "reorient agricultural, livestock, education, work and remuneration policies, among others, directly and indirectly related to the food sector, in order to supply markets and allow food to reach the population." This approach to the food crisis made it possible to understand how the crisis exacerbated into a humanitarian emergency aggravated by the pandemic. A whole generation of Venezuelans has been lost to illness, death, opportunities, and migration(AU)

Recomendaciones nutricionales para el personal de salud y el personal esencial expuesto a la COVID-19 en Latinoamérica / Nutritional Recommendations for Healthcare and Essential Personnel Exposed to COVID-19 in Latin America

Estas recomendaciones se basan en la evidencia científica actual derivada de meta-análisis y revisiones sistemáticas sobre nutrición y prevención de infecciones respiratorias causadas por los virus SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV o influenza, similares en su estructura al SARS-CoV-2. Están dirigidas al personal en la primera línea de atención de salud y al personal que presta servicios esenciales a la comunidad, con alto riesgo de infección por la COVID-19. Estas personas usan equipo de protección personal, cumplen largos turnos laborales, en ocasiones bajo condiciones extremas, lo que puede llevar a descanso insuficiente, alto nivel de estrés, depresión, pobre calidad en la alimentación y deshidratación. Todos estos factores influyen negativamente en el sistema inmune y podrían conllevar un mayor riesgo de infección. Una ingesta adecuada de micronutrientes y otros compuestos bioactivos es esencial para el desempeño óptimo del sistema inmune. Existe evidencia moderada que avala la suplementación, en forma individual, con vitamina C (2 000 mg), vitamina D (1 000-2 000 UI) y zinc (≤ 40 mg) en la prevención de infecciones respiratorias en adultos. No se encontró evidencia suficiente para avalar la suplementación con vitamina A, niacina, ácido fólico, B12, omega 3, probióticos y polifenoles, aunque si se recomienda el consumo de alimentos ricos en estos nutrientes para apoyar al sistema inmune. Se recomienda al personal seguir la recomendación de consumir 5 porciones/día (400 g) de frutas y vegetales/hortalizas, mantenerse hidratado y limitar la cafeína. No hay evidencia del consumo de alimentos alcalinos para prevenir infecciones. Estas recomendaciones son particularmente importantes durante la pandemia(AU)

These recommendations are based on current scientific evidence obtained through meta-analysis and systematic reviews on nutrition and the prevention of respiratory infections related to SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV or influenza, similar in structure to SARS-CoV-2. They are aimed at primary health care personnel and to those who provide essential services to the community and are, consequently, at high risk of COVID-19 infection. These individuals wear personal protective equipment, work long shifts, sometimes under extreme conditions, which can lead to insufficient rest, high stress levels, depression, poor nutrition and dehydration. Together, these factors have a negative impact on the immune system and could result in an increased risk of infection. An adequate intake of micronutrients and other bioactive compounds is essential for optimal immune performance. There is moderate evidence supporting supplementation, individually, with vitamin C (2 000 mg), vitamin D (1 000-2 000 IU) and zinc (≤40 mg) for the prevention of respiratory infections in adults. Insufficient evidence was found to support supplementation with vitamin A, niacin, folic acid, B12, omega 3, probiotics and polyphenols; however, the consumption of foods rich in these nutrients is recommended to support immune function. It is recommended that workers follow the recommendation of consuming 400 g/day of fruits and vegetables, remain hydrated and limit caffeine. There is no scientific evidence supporting the consumption of alkaline foods to prevent infections. The aforementioned recommendations are particularly relevant during the pandemic(AU)

Recomendaciones de micronutrientes para grupos vulnerables en contexto de desnutrición, durante la pandemia de COVID-19 en Latinoamérica / Micronutrient recommendations for vulnerable groups in context of undernutrition, during the COVID-19 pandemic in Latin America

La crisis por COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) puede convertirse en una catástrofe alimentaria para Latinoamérica, aumentando las personas que padecen hambre de 135 a 265 millones, especialmente en Venezuela, Guatemala, Honduras, Haití y El Salvador, que ya enfrentaban crisis económicas y sanitarias. Este manuscrito presenta la posición de un grupo de expertos latinoamericanos sobre las recomendaciones de consumo y/o suplementación con vitamina A, C, D, zinc, hierro, folatos y micronutrientes múltiples, en contextos de desnutrición, para grupos vulnerables: mujeres embarazadas y lactantes, niñas y niños menores de 5 años y adultos mayores. Las recomendaciones buscan disminuir el impacto potencial que tendrá COVID-19 en el estado nutricional, durante la pandemia. La posición surge de la discusión de dichos expertos con base a la revisión de evidencia científica actual para estos grupos vulnerables. Está dirigida a tomadores de decisiones, encargados de políticas públicas, personal de salud y organismos de la sociedad civil. Después de la lactancia materna y una dieta suficiente en cantidad y calidad, la suplementación con los micronutrientes presentados, puede contribuir a prevenir y tratar enfermedades virales, reforzar el sistema inmune y reducir complicaciones. La lactancia materna con medidas de higiene respiratoria, el suministro de múltiples micronutrientes en polvo para niños desde los 6 meses hasta los 5 años y el aporte de hierro y folatos o micronutrientes múltiples para la embarazada, son estrategias comprobadas y eficaces que deben seguirse implementando en tiempos de COVID-19. Para los adultos mayores la suplementación con vitamina C, D y zinc puede estar indicada(AU)

The COVID-19 crisis (SARS-CoV-2) might transform into a food catastrophe in Latin America and would increase the number of people suffering from hunger from 135 to 265 million, particularly in Venezuela, Guatemala, Honduras, Haiti and El Salvador, already facing economic and health crises. This manuscript presents the position of a group of Latin American experts in nutrition for establishing the recommendations for consumption and / or supplementation with vitamin A, C, D, zinc, iron, folates and multiple micronutrients, in undernutrition contexts, for vulnerable population of pregnant and lactating women, children under 5 years and the elderly. The recommendations seek to decrease the potential impact that COVID-19 will have on nutritional status during the pandemic. The position arises from the discussion of the experts based on the review of current scientific evidence for these vulnerable groups. It aims to reach stakeholders, public policy makers, health personnel and civil society organizations. Only after breastfeeding and a sufficient diet in terms of quantity and quality, a supplementation with the micronutrients mentioned above can help prevent and treat viral diseases, strengthen the immune system and even reduce complications. Breastfeeding with respiratory hygiene measures, the provision of multiple micronutrients powders for children from 6 moths to 5 years of age and the supply of iron and folates or multiple micronutrients tablets for pregnant women are proven and effective strategies that must continue to be implemented during COVID-19 pandemic. For older adults, supplementation with vitamin C, D and zinc might be indicated(AU)

Disrupted Relationships, Chaos, and Altered Family Meals in Food-Insecure Households: Experiences of Caregivers and Children.

BACKGROUND: Regular family meals foster healthy physical and social development of children but often occur less frequently in households experiencing food insecurity. How food insecurity influences the quality of these interactions is not understood well. OBJECTIVE: To better understand family meal experiences of caregivers and children living in food-insecure households. DESIGN: A qualitative method with cross-sectional sample was used, collecting data using semistructured interview guides. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty ethnically diverse caregiver-child (aged 9 to 15 years) dyads in South Carolina were interviewed. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Data were analyzed using grounded theory in Nvivo 10. RESULTS: Food-insecure households described family meals that varied in frequency, location, and quality of foods served, especially during times of food shortages. Interpersonal relationships drove the quality of mealtime interactions for these households. Household chaos not only influenced the frequency and location of meals, but also strained mealtime interactions in households with poor interpersonal relationships. In these homes, household chaos included conflicts with work and afterschool schedules, food shortages, coping with poverty and food insecurity (eg, working extra hours or seeking food assistance), and children visiting multiple homes, particularly when food was limited. All households experienced chaos, but strong interpersonal relationships were described as the primary reason for enjoyable mealtime experiences with few disruptions. CONCLUSIONS: Exploring family meal experiences of children in food-insecure households highlights the importance of interpersonal relationships and regular, positive mealtime interactions that may strengthen emotional connections in families to improve child health outcomes.

Los hábitos de desayuno en Venezuela y Colombia: una comparación reveladora / No disponible

No disponible

Vulnerabilidad alimentaria nutricional en el adulto mayor. Métodos para su medición / No disponible

No disponible

Conclusions of the II International and IV Spanish Hydration Congress. Toledo, Spain, 2nd-4th December, 2015.

Water is the major component of our organism representing about 60% of total body weight in adults and has to be obtained through the consumption of different foods and beverages as part of our diet. Water is an essential nutrient performing important functions, including transport of other nutrients, elimination of waste products, temperature regulation, lubrication and structural support. In this context, hydration through water has an essential role in health and wellness, which has been highly acknowledged in recent years among the health community experts such as nutritionists, dietitians, general practitioners, pharmacists, educators, as well as by physical activity and sport sciences experts and the general population.

Food insecurity reported by children, but not by mothers, is associated with lower quality of diet and shifts in foods consumed.

Household food security shows little indication of nutrient inadequacy among children, according to reports made by parents. We examined the associations of food insecurity as reported by children and mothers with children's consumption of energy, macronutrients such as vitamin A, calcium, iron and zinc, and selected foods, and whether these associations differed by child's gender. This cross-sectional study had non-probabilistic 128 Venezuelan mother-child pairs. We assessed food insecurity and management strategies in children using 10- and nine-item instruments, respectively. Mothers' report of food insecurity came from a previously validated 12-item instrument. Nutrient intake of children was assessed with a 67-item food frequency questionnaire. Comparisons were made using chi-square test for contingency tables and t-tests for trends (P < 0.05). Linear regression models were used for intakes of nutrients and selected foods. We tested for interactions with gender. Prevalence of child- and mother-reported food insecurity was 83.6 and 61.7%, respectively (P < 0.01). Greater food insecurity or management strategies reported by boys was associated with lower calcium, iron and zinc intake (P < 0.05), but reported intakes were low in girls who are even food secure. Rice and corn flour consumption was higher with higher food insecurity in children. Papaya and banana were less consumed by food-insecure children. We found shifts in 13 of 67 foods consumed, with less quality in those food insecure, as reported by children. Mother-reported food insecurity was associated only with rice intake of children. In contrast to mothers' reports, food insecurity reported by children was associated with children's lower quality of diet and shifts in foods consumed.

Dietary potential renal Acid load in venezuelan children.

OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to determine and analyze the dietary PRAL and food composition pattern in apparently healthy children from 1 to 6 years of age. METHODS: Parents of 52 children were selected by convenience, in an outpatient clinic of healthy children. Dietary quality and pattern was assessed by 24 hour recall and food frequency questionnaire. We focused on the intake of macronutrients and food groups, such as meats, dairy, fruits and vegetables. Nutrient intake was compared with national and international recommendations. PRAL was determined according to the method described by Remer and Manz. Descriptive statistics and correlations were applied. RESULTS: Dietary intake of proteins, milk and meat was high, while fruits and vegetables intake was low. PRAL was positive in 92% of the children and correlated (p<0.05) with intake of energy, proteins, fat, meat and dairy products. Protein intake was above 2.5 g/kg/day in 46.2% of the children. Food groups with the highest unbalance were meat and dairy products for excessive intake and fruits and vegetables regarding low intake, both of which represent risk factors for endogenous acid production. CONCLUSION: The diet of the children studied was characterized by an excessive acid load with the risk for the generation of systemic acidosis and its metabolic consequences.

Objetivo: Determinar y analizar la carga acida potencial renal de la dieta (Potential Renal Acid Load PRAL) y el patron de alimentacion de ninos entre 1 a 6 anos aparentemente sanos. Métodos: Se seleccionaron segun conveniencia a padres de 52 ninos asistentes a una consulta de ninos sanos. La calidad de la dieta y el patron de alimentacion se evaluo mediante un recordatorio de 24 horas y un cuestionario de frecuencia de alimentos. Se calculo la ingesta de macronutrientes y grupos de alimentos, como carnes, lacteos, frutas y verduras. La ingesta de nutrientes se comparo con las recomendaciones de energia y nutrientes. El PRAL se determino segun el metodo de Remer y Manz, para determinar la carga acida de la dieta. Se aplico estadistica descriptiva y correlaciones entre el PRAL, nutrientes y grupos de alimentos. Resultados: La ingesta de proteinas, de leche y de carnes fue elevada, mientras que la ingesta de rutas y hortalizas fue baja. El PRAL fue positivo en 92% de los ninos, se asocio con mayor ingesta de energia, proteinas, grasas, carne y lacteos. La ingesta de proteinas fue > 2,5 g/kg/ dia en 46,2% de los ninos. Los grupos de alimentos con mayor desequilibrio debido a exceso fueron la carne y los productos lacteos, mientras que por deficit fue el grupo de frutas y hortalizas. Conclusión: La dieta se caracteriza por una elevada carga de acido o PRAL, lo que aumenta el riesgo de acidosis sistemica y sus consecuencias metabolicas.

Dietary potential renal acid load in Venezuelan children / Carga ácida potencial renal de la dieta en niños venezolanos

Objective: Our aim was to determine and analyze the dietary PRAL and food composition pattern in apparently healthy children from 1 to 6 years of age. Methods: Parents of 52 children were selected by convenience, in an outpatient clinic of healthy children. Dietary quality and pattern was assessed by 24 hour recall and food frequency questionnaire. We focused on the intake of macronutrients and food groups, such as meats, dairy, fruits and vegetables. Nutrient intake was compared with national and international recommendations. PRAL was determined according to the method described by Remer and Manz. Descriptive statistics and correlations were applied. Results: Dietary intake of proteins, milk and meat was high, while fruits and vegetables intake was low. PRAL was positive in 92% of the children and correlated (p<0.05) with intake of energy, proteins, fat, meat and dairy products. Protein intake was above 2.5 g/kg/day in 46.2% of the children. Food groups with the highest unbalance were meat and dairy products for excessive intake and fruits and vegetables regarding low intake, both of which represent risk factors for endogenous acid production. Conclusion: The diet of the children studied was characterized by an excessive acid load with the risk for the generation of systemic acidosis and its metabolic consequences (AU)

Objetivo: Determinar y analizar la carga ácida potencial renal de la dieta (Potential Renal Acid Load PRAL) y el patrón de alimentación de niños entre 1 a 6 años aparentemente sanos. Métodos: Se seleccionaron según conveniencia a padres de 52 niños asistentes a una consulta de niños sanos. La calidad de la dieta y el patrón de alimentación se evalúo mediante un recordatorio de 24 horas y un cuestionario de frecuencia de alimentos. Se calculó la ingesta de macronutrientes y grupos de alimentos, como carnes, lácteos, frutas y verduras. La ingesta de nutrientes se comparó con las recomendaciones de energía y nutrientes. El PRAL se determinó según el método de Remer y Manz, para determinar la carga ácida de la dieta. Se aplicó estadística descriptiva y correlaciones entre el PRAL, nutrientes y grupos de alimentos. Resultados: La ingesta de proteínas, de leche y de carnes fue elevada, mientras que la ingesta de rutas y hortalizas fue baja. El PRAL fue positivo en 92% de los niños, se asoció con mayor ingesta de energía, proteínas, grasas, carne y lácteos. La ingesta de proteínas fue > 2,5 g/kg/ día en 46,2% de los niños. Los grupos de alimentos con mayor desequilibrio debido a exceso fueron la carne y los productos lácteos, mientras que por déficit fue el grupo de frutas y hortalizas. Conclusión: La dieta se caracteriza por una elevada carga de ácido o PRAL, lo que aumenta el riesgo de acidosis sistémica y sus consecuencias metabólicas (AU)

Bajo consumo de folatos en venezuela: urge una política de prevención y fortificación de alimentos / Folate intake deficit in venezuela address a policy for prevention and food fortification

El acido fólico (AF) es indispensable durante los primeros 28 días de la gestación, cuando por lo general la madre aún no sabe que está embarazada y seguirá siendo indispensable durante todo el ciclo vital. Hace más de dos décadas se reportó el rol del ácido fólico (AF) en la prevención de los defectos del tubo neural. El AF también se ha involucrado en la prevención del deterioro de la función cognitiva del adulto mayor. Esta revisión analiza los resultados de cinco estudios en Venezuela realizados entre los años 2003 hasta el 2010. Posterior a esta fecha no se encontró ninguna publicación similar. Los estudios son transversales, no probabilísticos, realizados en adolescentes (n=114), mujeres en edad fértil (n=243), embarazadas (n=863; n=104) y en el adulto mayor (n=53). Los estados donde se realizaron son el Distrito Capital, Carabobo y Lara. Los métodos para cuantificar el consumo de AF fueron: recordatorio de 24 horas, cuestionario de frecuencia de consumo, registro de 7 días y pesada de alimentos. La deficiencia en el consumo osciló entre 19% y 93%. Los estudios no son de ámbito nacional, los cuales reportan un problema de salud pública. Se recomienda realizar estudios nacionales que muestren la prevalencia de déficit, aunado al desarrollo de una política integral para prevenir y tratar la deficiencia de AF, que contemple las estrategias de fortificación de un alimento de consumo masivo, la fortificación complementaria, la suplementación y la diversificación de la dieta a través de la educación alimentaria(AU)

Folic acid (FA) is essential during the first 28 days of pregnancy, when most mothers still do not know that they are pregnant and will remain essential throughout the life cycle. More than two decades ago the role of FA acid in the prevention of neural tube defects was first reported. AF is also involved in preventing the deterioration of cognitive function in the elderly. The aim of this manuscript is to review and analyze the results of five surveys conducted from 2003 to 2010. After this date no similar publications were found. Studies were cross-sectional, with non probabilistic samples, collected in adolescents (n = 114), women of childbearing age (n = 243), pregnant women (n = 863, n = 104) and elders (n = 53). The geographical regions studied were the Capital, Carabobo and Lara States. Methods for measuring the intake of FA were: 24-hour recall, food frequency questionnaire, register of seven days and weigh of food. Deficit of intake varied among groups, it ranged from 19% to 93%. These studies came from non national representative samples, although showed a public health problem regarding this micronutrient. We recommend developing a national representative research that show the prevalence of the situation, moreover, the development of a comprehensive food policy to prevent and treat FA deficiency, which contemplates strategies of food fortification, home fortification, supplementation and diet diversification using nutrition education(AU)

Food insecurity in children but not in their mothers is associated with altered activities, school absenteeism, and stunting.

Household food insecurity has substantial detrimental effects on children, but little is known about the mechanisms through which these effects occur. This study investigated some possible mechanisms by examining associations of food insecurity reported by children and mothers with daily activities, school absenteeism, and stunting. We conducted a cross-sectional study in a nonprobabilistic sample of 131 mother-child pairs from a poor peri-urban area in Miranda State, Venezuela. We assessed food insecurity in children by using an instrument developed through a naturalistic approach that had 10 items for food insecurity and 9 items for management strategies. To obtain mothers' reports of food insecurity, a previously validated 12-item instrument was used. Children's daily activities, school absenteeism, and stunting were measured. Chi-square tests for contingency tables and logistic and multiple regression analyses were used to test associations of food insecurity with outcomes. There was no association between mothers' reports of food-insecurity and any child outcome. Children's reports of food insecurity were associated with higher odds of doing passive home chores (OR: 1.17; 95% CI: 1.02, 1.32), cooking at home (OR: 1.21; 95% CI: 1.05, 1,38), taking care of siblings (OR: 1.15; 95% CI: 1.01, 1.31), and doing labor (OR: 1.22; 95% CI: 1.04, 1.42) and lower odds of playing video games (OR: 0.86; 95% CI: 0.76, 0.98) (all P < 0.03). Children's reports of management strategies were associated with 5 of 7 work activities measured. Labor in food-insecure children was the main activity that explained school absenteeism. Food insecurity reported by children can be assessed by pediatricians, school personnel, and other practitioners by using a simple instrument to identify food-insecure children and to respond to mitigate their food insecurity and its consequences.

Valores de referencia de energía para la población venezolana / Reference values of energy for the Venezuelan population

La actualización de los valores de referencia de energía para los diferentes grupos poblacionales en Venezuela, responde a las recomendaciones del comité de expertos en nutrición convocado por FAO desde hace algunas décadas para que los países asuman esta tarea. Dadas las variaciones tanto en las necesidades como el consumo energético a nivel global y en particular en el panorama nutricional venezolano con la presencia de la “doble carga de la malnutrición” es pertinente la revisión de los Valores de Referencia de Energía (VRE) desde una perspectiva más integral. La presente actualización siguió la metodología del informe del comité de expertos FAO/OMS/UNU 2004 y se determinaron los valores de referencia por grupos de edad y género así como los valores ponderados de energía para la población venezolana. Para el cálculo de los requerimientos se consideró el gasto energético incluyendo la Tasa Metabólica Basal y el nivel de actividad física para algunos grupos de manera específica. El valor promedio ponderado de energía para la población venezolana en 2012, fue de 2.200 kcal/día, más bajo que en el año 2000 (2.300 kcal/día). En el género masculino fue más bajo en casi todas las edades excepto a los 16-17 años y, en el femenino hasta los diez años, mientras que, en las otras edades resultaron ligeramente más altos que los valores del 2000.

The project of updating the Venezuelan energy reference values respond to the recommendations made by an FAO experts committee, several decades ago for the countries assuming this work. Because of the dramatic changes experienced globally regarding energy intake/expenditure and particularly variations on the Venezuelan nutritional scenario with the presence of “the double burden of malnutrition” it a review of Energy Reference Values (VRE) from a more integral approach is pertinent. This report follows the methodology proposed by FAO/WHO/UNU 2004 experts committee and energy reference values were established by group of age and gender, also average energy values for Venezuelan population were obtained. For calculation of these requirements, the energy expenditure was included by taking into account Basal Metabolic Rate and physical activity level for some specific groups. The score average values updated in 2012 of 2.200 kcal/dia reported to be lower than those of 2000 at all ages for masculine gender except for the 16-17 age group and for feminine gender just until ages 10- 12 years and from there are slightly above the values obtained in 2000.

[Reference values of energy for the Venezuelan population]. / Valores de referencia de energía para la población venezolana.

The project of updating the Venezuelan energy reference values respond to the recommendations made by an FAO experts committee, several decades ago for the countries assuming this work. Because of the dramatic changes experienced globally regarding energy intake/expenditure and particularly variations on the Venezuelan nutritional scenario with the presence of "the double burden of malnutrition" it a review of Energy Reference Values (VRE) from a more integral approach is pertinent. This report follows the methodology proposed by FAO/WHO/UNU 2004 experts committee and energy reference values were established by group of age and gender, also average energy values for Venezuelan population were obtained. For calculation of these requirements, the energy expenditure was included by taking into account Basal Metabolic Rate and physical activity level for some specific groups. The score average values updated in 2012 of 2.200 kcal/dia reported to be lower than those of 2000 at all ages for masculine gender except for the 16-17 age group and for feminine gender just until ages 10-12 years and from there are slightly above the values obtained in 2000.

El derecho a la alimentación en venezuela / The right to food

En la Declaración del Milenio, aprobada por la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas en 2000, los Estados se comprometieron a reducir a la mitad para el año 2015 el número de personas que padecieran hambre. En 2004 la FAO aprobó las Directrices Voluntarias, del derecho a una alimentación adecuada en el contexto de la seguridad alimentaria nacional y dio orientación práctica a los Estados. El ejercicio del derecho, presenta inequidades de tipo socioeconómico, cultural, geográficos y políticos, que limitan su cumplimiento, entre ellas, desequilibrio en la disponibilidad y acceso a los alimentos que conduce a una situación de alta vulnerabilidad alimentaria y nutricional en los grupos con menores recursos. La alimentación sufre el impacto de la alta inflación y del desabastecimiento que alcanzó 13% en 2012, leche, harina de maíz y aceite están entre los alimentos más críticos. Algunas de las leyes y la política de expropiación, confiscación e invasión de empresas de alimentos y de fincas productivas, ha provocado una caída de la producción nacional, de modo que los alimentos en su mayoría son importados, algunos deficientes en calidad e inocuidad. En la nutrición, está la doble carga, desnutrición (17-31%) y sobrepeso-obesidad (13-20%) en niños y adolescentes, en los más pobres y en los adultos aumentan las enfermedades crónicas. Sin embargo, desde 2007 los datos oficiales del SISVAN no se publican. El cumplimiento del Derecho a la Alimentación, presenta debilidades que deben corregirse para darle más y mejor alimentación a la población(AU)

In The United Nations Millenium Declarations on the Developmental Goals approved by the general assembly in 2000, the countries made a commitment to reduce the number of persons suffering from hunger by the year 2015. In 2004, FAO approved the Voluntary Guidelines on the right to adequate food in the context of national Food Security and provided a practical guidance to the states. The exercise of this right presents inequities in the socioeconomic, cultural, geographical and political levels that limit their achievement, amongst them the instability in the availability and access to food that results in a high vulnerability in food consumption and nutritional status of the poorest populations groups. Food consumption suffers the impact o high inflation and food shortage that reached 13% in 2012; milk, maize flour and oil are amongst the most critical Some laws and the policy of expropriation and invasions of food companies and productive farms have produced scarcity due to a drop in productivity with the result that most food products are imported, some deficient in quality and innocuousness. We carry the double burden of under nutrition (13-20%) and overweight (13-20%) in children and adolescents and in adults, chronic diseases are rising. Nonetheless, SISVAN does not publish data on nutritional status since 2007. The right to food presents weaknesses that should be corrected to ensure a better nutrition for the population(AU)

Carga ácida potencial renal de la dieta en niños de 2 a 6 años / Potential renal acid load in children from 2 to 6 years of age

El consumo proteico excesivo incrementa la producción endógena de ácido, lo que puede conducir a acidosis metabólica, pérdida de masa ósea, hipercalciuria, urolitiasis, retardo del crecimiento y sarcopenia, entre otros. Estimar y analizar la Carga Ácida Potencial Renal (CAPR) de la dieta en niños de 2 a 6 años. Estudio descriptivo y transversal, que incluyó 52 niños de la consulta de niños sanos del Instituto de Previsión y Asistencia Social del Ministerio del Poder Popular para la Educación, estado Miranda. Las principales variables estudiadas fueron: (1) consumo de macronutrientes, y patrón alimentario evaluado mediante recordatorio de 24 horas (R24h) y cuestionario de frecuencia de consumo (CFC). El R24H permitió determinar adecuación nutricional y el CFC la calidad de la dieta y factores de protección y riesgo dietético para una mayor carga ácida de la dieta. El consumo de nutrientes se comparó con recomendaciones nacionales e internacionales; (2) la CAPR según el método de Remer y Manz. Para el análisis estadístico se utilizó el programa SPSS, v17.0. El consumo de proteínas estuvo elevado en 46,15% de los niños. Los alimentos con mayor desbalance fueron: carnes y lácteos por consumo excesivo, frutas y hortalizas por consumo deficiente. La CAPR fue positiva en 96,2% de los niños y se correlacionó positivamente (p<0,05) con el consumo de energía, proteínas, grasas, carnes y lácteos. La dieta de los niños estudiados se caracterizó por su excesiva carga ácida con el consecuente riesgo para la generación de ácidosis sistémica y sus consecuencias metabólicas

High protein intake increases endogenous acid production, which may lead to metabolic acidosis, decrease in bone and muscle mass, hipercalciuria and urolithiasis, among other disorders. Estimate and analyze the Potential Renal Acid Load (PRAL) of the diet in children from two to six years of age. The study is descriptive, cross-sectional and correlational wich included fifty two children who assisted to an ambulatory well child clinic in Carrizales, Miranda State, Venezuela. The main variables studied were: (1) Macronutrient food intake and diet pattern which was assessed by a 24 hour recall (24hR) and a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). The 24hR allowed to evaluate nutritional adequacy and the FFQ, the diet quality, as well as diet protection and risk factors. Nutrient intake was compared with national and international recommendations; (2) PRAL was determined according to Remer and Manz. Statistical analysis was performed by means of the SPSS, v17.0 software. Protein intake was high in 46,15% of the children. Food groups with the highest unbalance were meat and dairy products for excessive intake and fruits and vegetables for defective intake, both of which represent risk factors for acid production. PRAL was positive in 92% of the children and was positively correlated (p<0.05) with intake of energy, proteins, fat and with the food groups of meat and dairy. The diet of the studied children was characterized by an excessive acid load with the risk for the generation of systemic acidosis and its metabolic consequences